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陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩特征及形成机理研究进展

王鑫锐 孙雨 刘如昊 李钊

王鑫锐, 孙雨, 刘如昊, 李钊. 陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩特征及形成机理研究进展[J]. 沉积学报, 2023, 41(2): 349-377. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
引用本文: 王鑫锐, 孙雨, 刘如昊, 李钊. 陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩特征及形成机理研究进展[J]. 沉积学报, 2023, 41(2): 349-377. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
WANG XinRui, SUN Yu, LIU RuHao, LI Zhao. Research Progress into Fine-grained Sedimentary Rock Characteristics and Formation in a Continental Lake Basin[J]. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 2023, 41(2): 349-377. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
Citation: WANG XinRui, SUN Yu, LIU RuHao, LI Zhao. Research Progress into Fine-grained Sedimentary Rock Characteristics and Formation in a Continental Lake Basin[J]. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 2023, 41(2): 349-377. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117

陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩特征及形成机理研究进展

doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
基金项目: 

国家自然科学基金项目 41872158

黑龙江省自然科学基金项目 YQ2019D002

详细信息
    作者简介:

    王鑫锐,女,1995年出生,博士研究生,沉积与储层地质学,E-mail: wangxr_2017@163.com

    通讯作者:

    孙雨,男,教授,E-mail: sunyu_hc@163.com

  • 中图分类号: P581

Research Progress into Fine-grained Sedimentary Rock Characteristics and Formation in a Continental Lake Basin

Funds: 

National Natural Science Foundation of China 41872158

Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province YQ2019D002

  • 摘要: 细粒沉积岩是最为常见的岩石类型之一,蕴藏着丰富的油气资源,伴随着非常规油气的发展,有关细粒沉积的研究逐渐成为了热点,但由于陆相细粒沉积岩岩石类型丰富,形成机制复杂,缺乏统一科学的分类方案。对目前常见的陆相细粒沉积岩分类方法进行总结,并依据岩石组分将其分为混合型和碎屑型细粒沉积岩两种,并指明其常见的岩石类型特征;梳理与其相关的成因动力学物理模拟实验成果,其中有关泥级颗粒的搬运—沉积机理已经取得了重大突破。而细粒沉积模式方面,可以分为有机质富集模式,岩相模式以及成因模式,三个模式的内涵和所要解决的地质问题各不相同。在此基础上,提出加强细粒沉积岩不同矿物成分微观结构特征、沉积—成岩机理认识,将岩石微观成因分类方案与宏观成因模式有效融合是未来细粒沉积研究的关键。
  • 图  1  中国富有机质页岩平面分布及构造背景[73]

    Figure  1.  Plane distribution and tectonic setting of organic⁃rich shale in China[73]

    Fig.1

    图  2  混合型细粒沉积岩以及碎屑型细粒沉积岩岩石学特征[39,76,111113]

    1.沙河街组三段下亚段(东营、沾化凹陷);2.沙河街组四段上亚段纯上次亚段(东营、沾化凹陷);3.沙河街组四段上亚段纯下次亚段(东营、沾化凹陷);4.孔店组二段(沧东凹陷);5.孔店组二段(沧东凹陷);6.松辽盆地青山口组一段(古龙凹陷);7.松辽盆地青山口组一段(长岭凹陷);8.松辽盆地南部青山口组;9.松辽盆地沙河子组(长岭断陷);10.松辽盆地青山口组一段(大情字井地区);11.碳酸盐岩;12.粉砂岩;13.黏土岩;14.混合沉积岩

    Figure  2.  Petrological characteristics of mixed and clastic fine⁃grained sedimentary rocks[39,76,111113]

    1. lower 3rd sub⁃member of Shahejie Formation (Dongying Sag, Zhanhua Sag); 2. Chunshang part of upper 4th sub⁃member of Shahejie Formation (Dongying Sag, Zhanhua Sag); 3. Chunxia part of upper 4th sub⁃member of Shahejie Formation (Dongying Sag, Zhanhua Sag); 4. 2nd member of Kongdian Formation (Cangdong Sag); 5. 2nd member of Kongdian Formation (Cangdong Sag); 6. 1st member of Qingshankou Formation in Songliao Basin (Gulong Sag); 7. 1st member of Qingshankou Formation in Songliao Basin (Changling Sag); 8. Qingshankou Formation in southern Songliao Basin; 9. Shahezi Formation in Songliao Basin (Changling Fault Depression); 10. 1st member of Qingshankou Formation in Songliao Basin (Daqingzijing area); 11. carbonate rock; 12. siltstone; 13. clay rock; 14. mixed sedimentary rock

    图  3  水流速度、悬浮物浓度和波纹形态关系图[201]

    Figure  3.  Flow velocity,suspended sediment concentration, and ripple appearance[201]

    Fig.3

    图  4  松辽盆地南部青山口组细粒沉积周期性底流作用标志

    松辽盆地长岭凹陷青一段细粒沉积岩特征:(a)黑灰色块状泥岩,微细粉砂质纹层不连续,局部粉砂质透镜体,H238井,2 101.50 m;(b)黑灰色块状泥岩,中间由细小粉砂质透镜体、团块形成的粒序层理,H238井,2 104.40 m;(c)砂泥突变接触面,下部泥质粉砂岩可见波状泥质纹层,H238井,2 110.20 m;(d)砂脉、砂质团块,存在变形,具有明显的牵引流构造特征,H238井,2 151.70 m;(e)上部水平层理,下部砂质团块,牵引流构造特征,H258井,2 418.98 m;(f)泥质及粉砂纹层互层,存在变形砂脉,H258井,2 410.12 m;(g)粉砂纹层与泥质纹层互层形成平行层理,H258井,2 380.02 m;(h)泥质纹层夹在粉砂层之间,形成波状交错层理,H258井,2 426.17 m

    Figure  4.  Periodic underflow of fine⁃grained sediments of Qingshankou Formation in southern Songliao Basin

    core characteristics of fine⁃grained sedimentary system of member Qing 1 in Changling Sag, Songliao Basin: (a) black⁃ray massive mudstone, discontinuous fine silty lamina, local silty lens, well H238, 2 101.50 m; (b) black⁃gray massive mudstone, with grain sequence bedding formed by fine silty lens and mass in the middle, well H238, 2 104.40 m; (c) sand mud abrupt contact surface, showing wavy argillaceous laminae in lower argillaceous siltstone, well H238, 2 110.20 m; (d) sand veins and sand masses, with deformation and obvious traction flow structural characteristics, well H238, 2 151.70 m; (e) upper horizontal bedding, lower sandy mass, with traction and drainage structural characteristics, well H258, 2 418.98 m; (f) interbedded argillaceous and silty sand layers, with sand veins, severe deformation, well H258, 2 410.12 m; (g) interbedded silty sand lamina and argillaceous lamina forming parallel bedding, well H258, 2 380.02 m; (h) argillaceous lamina sandwiched between silty sand layers, forming wavy cross⁃bedding, well H258, 2 426.17 m

    图  5  不同沉积物供应量下的纹层形成过程[222]

    Figure  5.  Lamina formation for different sediment supply[222]

    Fig.5

    图  6  碳酸盐沉积波纹形态与流速及剪切应力的关系[227]

    Figure  6.  Relationship between ripple shape of carbonate deposition and velocity and shear stress[227]

    Fig.6

    图  7  陆相湖盆富有机质细粒页岩沉积模式图[38]

    (a)坳陷湖盆;(b)断陷湖盆;(c)前陆湖盆

    Figure  7.  Sedimentary pattern of fine⁃grained shale enrichment in continental lake basin[38]

    Fig.7

    图  8  基于岩相—沉积环境的陆相细粒沉积模式[160]

    Figure  8.  Continental fine⁃grained sedimentary model based on lithofacies sedimentary environment[160]

    Fig.8

    图  9  陆相混合型及碎屑型细粒沉积岩成因模式(修改自刘惠民等[82]

    Figure  9.  Genetic model of continental mixed and clastic fine⁃grained sedimentary rocks (modified from Liu et al.[82])

    Fig.9

    表  1  陆相混合型细粒沉积岩与碎屑型细粒沉积岩划分方案

    岩石大类分类依据典型研究者及研究对象分类结果
    混合型细粒沉积岩岩石学特征赵建华等[90] 四川盆地龙马溪组李书琴等[131],葸克来等[132]吉木萨尔凹陷芦草沟组粉砂岩、黏土岩,灰岩白云岩,灰质混合沉积岩, 长英质混合沉积岩,黏土质混合沉积岩等
    沉积构造岩石学特征刘姝君等[150]东营凹陷沙三下—沙四上亚段邓远等[151] 沧东凹陷孔店组二段周立宏等[152] 歧口凹陷沙一段下亚段块状长英质页岩、纹层状长英质页岩;纹层状黏土质页岩; 纹层状灰质页岩;块状白云质页岩、白云岩; 纹层状碳酸盐质/长英质/黏土质混合页岩等
    有机质含量沉积构造岩石学特征吴靖等[77],张顺等[159]彭丽等[125]济阳凹陷沙三下亚段渤海湾盆地东营凹陷沙三下—沙四上亚段刘忠宝等[128]四川盆地中下侏罗统含有机质纹层状泥质灰岩、富有机质纹层状泥质灰岩、 富有机质纹层状灰质泥岩、富有机质层状灰质泥岩、 富有机质层状泥质灰岩以及富有机质块状泥质灰岩等
    有机质含量沉积构造成因类型陈世悦等[91],宁方兴等[141] 渤海湾盆地东营凹陷王小军等[158]吉木萨尔凹陷芦草沟组块状/纹层状/团块状(长英质黏土质)碳酸盐型细粒混积岩等; 富有机质纹层状隐晶泥质灰岩等
    碎屑型细粒沉积岩有机质含量沉积构造岩石学特征柳波等[39],王岚等[161]松辽盆地古龙凹陷青山口组张君峰等[111]松辽盆地南部青山口组富有机质黏土质页岩、富有机质长英质页岩、贫有机质长英质泥岩、 富有机质混合质页岩(如含生屑长英质页岩、长英质泥灰岩)、贫有机质介壳灰岩
    有机质含量(沉积构造)碎屑岩粒级柳波等[162]松辽盆地长岭凹陷青山口组耳闯等[163],付金华等[168]鄂尔多斯盆地延长组高有机质薄片状页岩相、中有机质块状泥岩相、 中有机质纹层状页岩相、低有机质纹层状页岩相和低有机质砂岩夹层相
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  • 收稿日期:  2021-06-17
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目录

    陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩特征及形成机理研究进展

    doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
      基金项目:

      国家自然科学基金项目 41872158

      黑龙江省自然科学基金项目 YQ2019D002

      作者简介:

      王鑫锐,女,1995年出生,博士研究生,沉积与储层地质学,E-mail: wangxr_2017@163.com

      通讯作者: 孙雨,男,教授,E-mail: sunyu_hc@163.com
    • 中图分类号: P581

    摘要: 细粒沉积岩是最为常见的岩石类型之一,蕴藏着丰富的油气资源,伴随着非常规油气的发展,有关细粒沉积的研究逐渐成为了热点,但由于陆相细粒沉积岩岩石类型丰富,形成机制复杂,缺乏统一科学的分类方案。对目前常见的陆相细粒沉积岩分类方法进行总结,并依据岩石组分将其分为混合型和碎屑型细粒沉积岩两种,并指明其常见的岩石类型特征;梳理与其相关的成因动力学物理模拟实验成果,其中有关泥级颗粒的搬运—沉积机理已经取得了重大突破。而细粒沉积模式方面,可以分为有机质富集模式,岩相模式以及成因模式,三个模式的内涵和所要解决的地质问题各不相同。在此基础上,提出加强细粒沉积岩不同矿物成分微观结构特征、沉积—成岩机理认识,将岩石微观成因分类方案与宏观成因模式有效融合是未来细粒沉积研究的关键。

    English Abstract

    王鑫锐, 孙雨, 刘如昊, 李钊. 陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩特征及形成机理研究进展[J]. 沉积学报, 2023, 41(2): 349-377. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
    引用本文: 王鑫锐, 孙雨, 刘如昊, 李钊. 陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩特征及形成机理研究进展[J]. 沉积学报, 2023, 41(2): 349-377. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
    WANG XinRui, SUN Yu, LIU RuHao, LI Zhao. Research Progress into Fine-grained Sedimentary Rock Characteristics and Formation in a Continental Lake Basin[J]. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 2023, 41(2): 349-377. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
    Citation: WANG XinRui, SUN Yu, LIU RuHao, LI Zhao. Research Progress into Fine-grained Sedimentary Rock Characteristics and Formation in a Continental Lake Basin[J]. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 2023, 41(2): 349-377. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2021.117
      • 细粒沉积岩(fine-grained sedimentary rocks)约占地层记录的三分之二,是最为常见的岩石类型之一[14]。与早期印象中简单均一的细粒“泥岩”不同,该类岩石沉积结构及矿物组成十分复杂[1,57],且由于粒度小,观测难度大,围绕细粒沉积岩的争论从未停止。早在细粒沉积岩概念提出之时,便针对粉砂级颗粒是否属于细粒沉积岩范畴产生了一定争议,以Krumbein[6]为典型代表的部分学者通过颗粒在水体中分散机制及沉降状态将粉砂级颗粒纳入细粒沉积岩的范畴,并将下限定为0.1 mm[6,89],而Lewan[9]则通过岩石中不同矿物的微观特征及体积/重量百分比,认为只有粒径小于0.005 mm的泥级颗粒方能参与细粒沉积岩的构成。目前,国内外学者就细粒沉积岩的概念已达成共识,将由粒径小于0.062 5 mm的泥级和粉砂级黏土矿物、陆源碎屑、碳酸盐、有机质等不同类型沉积物颗粒构成,且含量大于50%的岩石称为细粒沉积岩[2,1013]。然而不难看出,细粒沉积岩的概念涵盖了泥级和粉砂级两个截然不同的粒度等级[1417],且碳酸盐、火山碎屑等特殊成分以及成岩作用改造特征的难以辨认[18]为细粒沉积岩的分类定名研究带来了新的问题。细粒沉积岩[1920]、粉砂岩[2122]、泥岩[2328]、黏土岩[29]、泥质岩[30]、泥状岩[6,10],甚至涵盖一定沉积结构、石油行业特征的泥页岩[31]、页岩[21,3242]、油泥/页岩[4344]等都用来描述细粒沉积岩,不仅在国内,国际上仅“泥岩”一词就存在shale、clay、mudrock、mudstone、claystone、lutite、pelite、argillite等截然不同的表达方式[13,4552]。混乱的定名在生产中引起了一些麻烦,如目前非常规油气开采的对象中,涵盖了大量不同矿物成分、不同页理发育程度的岩石类型[53],如粉砂质页岩,灰质泥岩等。而上述沉积结构、成分特征不同的细粒沉积岩在油气富集规律及脆性、各向异性等工程特征上存在较大差异[5455],对非常规油气开采尤其是水平井部署及压裂造成了极大的影响。

        随着美国Barnett页岩、Marcellus页岩以及Wood ford页岩的顺利开采,细粒沉积岩的分类描述以及成因分析逐渐成为研究页岩油气富集规律的主要手段[5661]。国外学者主要通过野外露头以及岩心薄片观察、化验分析[5759]、测井[60]、地震[5859,61]等多种手段,选取诸如颜色、矿物成分、沉积结构、层理类型、生物化石等特征对细粒沉积岩进行分类[10,1213,46,56,6268]。如Loucks et al.[56]在Fort Worth盆地Barnett层系中利用矿物成分、沉积结构以及生物化石类型构建分类标准;McKee et al.[62]利用沉积结构中的层理规模、力学特征进行分类,但这种基于某种或某几种特征的分类方法更加侧重于原始沉积构造以及生物活动轨迹的研究,以重建细粒沉积古环境[56,6364]。此外,部分学者采用三端元图解的结构分类法对细粒沉积岩进行分类,并用“mudstone”作为所有细粒沉积岩的分类主名,但同样在术语上造成了混淆。随后,Lazer et al.[12]在上述基于粒度的结构分类标准之上,增加岩石成分(硅质、钙质、泥质等)及层理特征(块状、层状等)等术语进行综合定名,并利用其生物扰动程度、化石类型、有机质丰度、成岩特征和颜色对其名称进行修饰[10,12,46]。在针对细粒物质沉积来源的复杂性上[6566],Milliken[13]根据沉积及成岩特征将盆内和盆外颗粒进行区分,其中盆内碎屑多为生物成因,而盆外碎屑来源则更加丰富,据此建立了Tarl/Varl(盆外的陆源碎屑/火山碎屑组分达75%以上),Carl(盆外碎屑小于75%,盆内碎屑中生物钙质含量>生物硅质含量)和Sarl(盆外碎屑小于75%,盆内碎屑中生物钙质含量小于生物硅质含量)的三端元岩石分类方案。该分类方案有效地区分了不同矿物的沉积、成岩特征,对恢复细粒沉积岩形成过程以及后期成岩改造具有重大的推进作用,但由于矿物微观特征识别以及成因解释难度较大,该分类方案一直存在争议[6768]

        整体而言,国外学者所讨论的细粒沉积岩分类及模式均集中在海相环境,而我国目前开发的非常规含油气层系中,除四川、滇黔桂、塔里木地区的海相及海陆过渡相体系外,渤海湾盆地古近系,松辽盆地白垩系,鄂尔多斯盆地上三叠统,准噶尔盆地上二叠统、侏罗统等均属于陆相细粒沉积体系[6972]图1)。与分布面积大,厚度稳定,成分相对单一的海相细粒沉积相比,陆相湖盆由于距离物源较近且水体深度较小,受环境、气候因素影响更加显著[7273],陆相细粒沉积发育规模更小,非均质性更强;并且,由于岩石矿物成分、结构、组合方式在成因上的复杂性和多解性[65,74],国外的海相细粒沉积岩分类方案在陆相湖盆中变得不再适用。针对国内复杂的陆相湖盆细粒沉积体系,国内外学者进行了不懈的努力,主流采用兼顾成因以及特征描述的“三端元”岩相学分类方法对我国独特的陆相细粒沉积岩进行划分及定名。岩相是在一定沉积环境中形成的岩石类型及岩石组合[7577],任何可以反映沉积环境变化的参数都可以作为岩相的划分标准[78]。依据矿物成分、沉积构造、有机质丰度进行岩相划分时[12],矿物成分是确定细粒沉积岩岩石类型的关键,通常以能够代表其物质来源的陆源碎屑矿物、黏土矿物和盆内自生的碳酸盐矿物作为三端元共同进行岩石类型的划分[18,74,7982]。但由于同成分不同成因颗粒、晶体组合识别困难[10,1213,17,46,49],以及有机质含量精细测算的实验条件限制[83],导致现场简陋条件细粒沉积岩分类工作难以进行;其次,不同沉积盆地中细粒沉积岩的物质来源、沉积机制各异,使得各盆地的分类方案被限制在了某个地区之内难以向外推广,如松辽盆地青山口组沉积时期,由于陆源供给充足,盐度低,以石英、斜长石为主,碳酸盐矿物含量低[39],是否选择三端元分类方案仍然需要进一步讨论;而在使用三端元综合分类方案的盆地中,端元的选择同样具有差异性,如张少敏等[84]针对吉木萨尔凹陷芦草沟组火山活动频繁的特征,依据成因—成分将陆源碎屑、火山碎屑和碳酸盐替换作为细粒沉积岩岩石类型三角形图解的三个端元。但由于火山作用形成的火山碎屑矿物组合同样复杂多变,目前有关火山—热液是否应该参与细粒沉积岩的分类定名仍然存在一定争议[8588];此外,由于具体要解决科学问题的差异[11,8991],不同学者在分类中往往添加一些特殊的修饰词,如陈世悦等[91]依据混合沉积机制将东营凹陷细粒沉积岩分为均匀混合/纹层叠置混合/不均匀团块混合长英质/黏土质/碳酸盐质细粒混积岩。目前的分类方法均具有一定的地区性和局限性,至今尚未形成统一的,能够应用于石油、地质等多领域研究的细粒沉积岩分类方案[1213,46]

        图  1  中国富有机质页岩平面分布及构造背景[73]

        Figure 1.  Plane distribution and tectonic setting of organic⁃rich shale in China[73]

        缺乏统一的细粒沉积岩分类方案同样为细粒沉积模式的构建带来了困难,不同学者建立模式想要解决的问题不同,面对盆地的地质条件不同,沉积模式的建立相较于细粒沉积岩分类方案更加的混乱,“逐盆逐建,逐次逐建”是细粒沉积模式构建的常态。如Plint et al.[92]基于水槽实验及原位海洋学检测,为明确陆架淤泥迁移沉降方式构建了泥浆沉积中心的形成动力学模型。袁选俊等[93]为寻找富有机质页岩的富集规律,构建了“湖侵—水体分层”的有机质聚集机理模型。Frébourg et al.[94]基于对野外露头的高分辨率图像采集,为确定火山活动与沉积物生产力的相互作用关系,从细粒沉积物生产、运输、富集的角度构建了美国德克萨斯州Eagle Ford/Boquillas层系的细粒沉积模式。针对上述情况,本文系统地总结、归纳了近年来陆相盆地细粒沉积分类方案,明确了我国陆相细粒沉积岩中常见的岩石类型、特征及形成动力学机制,理清了常见细粒沉积模式的建立原则及适用范围,并指出了目前存在的问题和未来发展方向,以期丰富陆相细粒沉积岩石学基础理论,指导陆相非常规油气资源的评价与优选。

      • 我国陆相细粒沉积岩具有岩石类型复杂、结构样式多样、空间分布非均质性强的特征[7071,95],因此在进行陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩研究时,分类标准及命名方案众多:从有机成因以及石油开采的角度[9697],中国陆相细粒沉积岩可以分为腐泥型、腐殖腐泥型和腐泥腐殖型[9798]细粒沉积岩;从沉积环境角度,可以划分为湖泊和湖泊—沼泽成因[99101]细粒沉积岩;从水体性质角度,可以划分为淡水细粒沉积岩和咸水—半咸水[95]细粒沉积岩。由上述分类可知,细粒沉积岩的有机质特征及所处盆地的构造样式、沉积环境是细粒沉积岩初步分类的重要依据,目前广泛应用的分类方法往往也基于上述标准,即结合细粒沉积岩成分、结构、构造等特征,采用岩相学分类方法[7578],既可以有效地反映岩石的沉积环境,沉积水动力变化,也可以兼顾岩石成分、结构、构造等特征。

        伴随着不同盆地细粒沉积岩岩石成分及微观组构特征研究的不断深入,发现盆地水体咸化程度不同,细粒沉积岩岩石学特征差异极大[102106]。以其中典型的渤海湾盆地和松辽盆地为例,渤海湾盆地沙河街组沉积时期是典型的咸化湖盆,发育的细粒沉积岩本质上是一种混积岩[107110],是陆源输入的机械沉积作用和(生物)化学沉积作用共同作用的结果,由碳酸盐矿物,石英、长石等长英质矿物,和少量黏土矿物组成[79]图2a),其中碳酸盐组分和陆源碎屑组分杂乱混合在一起或以纹层的形式交替叠置[31,82,114115]。而松辽盆地青山口组沉积时期形成的细粒沉积岩在岩石成分上碳酸盐组分明显较低,以石英、长石等长英质组分和黏土组分为主[39,111113]图2b),笔者通过对松辽盆地南部长岭凹陷青山口组页岩层系中碳酸盐组分高值样品点进行观察发现,碳酸盐组分通常以方解石、白云石胶结物的形式呈薄膜状或粒状镶嵌充填在石英、长石颗粒边缘。此外也有部分学者认为松辽盆地青山口组沉积时期碳酸盐岩异常高值带为介形虫等生物灭绝形成[116]。总体来说,淡水湖盆主要发生机械沉积作用,以陆源碎屑成分为主,而咸化湖盆沉积作用更为复杂,除机械沉积外,化学及生物沉积作用产生的盆内粒屑同样参与细粒沉积岩的构成。故笔者依据其岩石学特征将陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩进一步细分为混合型细粒沉积岩(咸化—半咸化湖盆)和碎屑型细粒沉积岩(淡水湖盆)两大类,分别对二者的分类方案进行总结,以便更好地认识不同类型细粒沉积体系中岩石成分、结构、构造等特征。

        图  2  混合型细粒沉积岩以及碎屑型细粒沉积岩岩石学特征[39,76,111113]

        Figure 2.  Petrological characteristics of mixed and clastic fine⁃grained sedimentary rocks[39,76,111113]

      • 在咸化—半咸化湖盆中[117118],当陆源供应、盆地内生物化学反应与火山活动达到一定平衡时[119],长英质碎屑组分、火山碎屑组分以及碳酸盐岩组分会共存并形成一个连续的统一体[120],此类由于混合沉积作用形成的岩石可称作混合型细粒沉积岩。“混合沉积”的概念最早由Mount[121]在1984年提出,90年代引入中国后取得了一系列的成果[101103,122124]。混合沉积形成的岩石类型丰富,陆源碎屑组分与火山碎屑、碳酸盐等其他组分在微观结构上混合构成的狭义混积岩[123124],和碎屑岩与碳酸盐岩、火山岩等其他同期异相岩体在空间上横向相变,纵向互层或无规律零星交叉、夹层等层系上的混合形成的宏观广义混积岩[103]均属于混合沉积岩的范畴[101102]。我国渤海湾盆地东营凹陷、济阳凹陷、沧东凹陷、歧口凹陷的沙河街组、孔店组等[78,125],四川盆地下侏罗统[78,90,126128]、龙马溪组[129130],准噶尔盆地吉木萨尔凹陷芦草沟组[131132],柴达木盆地克鲁克组、干柴沟组[133135],三塘湖盆地条湖组、芦草沟组等[136],广泛发育混合细粒沉积岩。

        最初进行混合型细粒沉积岩分类时,仅简单地根据其岩石学特征,页理发育程度以及有机质丰度将其简单命名为页岩、泥岩、油页岩等,但由于此类方案过于简单,单一岩石类型中往往包含大量信息而被快速摒弃。目前基于岩相对细粒沉积岩进行分类和定名已经在国内外形成共识[137140],岩相由于包含能够反映沉积环境变化的岩石学以及构造特征参数,可以有效地帮助我们恢复不同盆地的沉积过程以及地质条件。目前常用的岩相分类指标主要包括细粒沉积岩的矿物成分、沉积构造以及有机质丰度等。与前两者具有一定的通用性不同,在非常规油气勘探开发领域的研究学者更倾向于将能够表征细粒沉积岩生烃能力及含油气性的有机质纳入评价指标中来[7,125,140142],考虑到不同岩相类型细粒沉积岩有机质含量及赋存状态不同,采用总有机碳含量(TOC)作为评价其有机质富集程度的参数,我国通常以2%和4%为界,将混合型细粒沉积岩划分为富有机质、中有机质和贫有机质三种[2325]。而沉积构造参数的使用上,成层性是细粒沉积岩最显著的特征之一[65],但目前有关层理的研究多集中在层理的成分、形态、连续性以及组合特征上[19,109,143],针对层理规模的划分标准少有笔墨,本文综合不同学者进行岩相分类时采用的层理规模参数对层理规模以及名称进行了总结。与常规岩石的宏观块状(>1 m)以及层状构造(根据规模进一步细分0.5~1 m为厚层、0.1~0.5 m为中层、0.01~0.1 m为薄层、小于0.01 m为页状层)不同,细粒沉积岩的“纹层”更倾向于是一个微观结构上的成因概念,宏观为块状构造的岩石内部同样可以存在纹层结构[94],细粒沉积岩中使用的“层理”规模由小到大可以分为纹层状(小于1 mm,主要集中在0.01~0.5 mm)、层状(1 mm~1 m)以及块状构造(内部均一,部分发育负荷构造、液化砂脉、生物扰动等软沉积变形构造)[19,82,144148]。然而,无论采取上述何种特征进行修饰,在岩相分类中,细粒沉积岩的矿物成分一直是其中的关键[140,149152]。通常采用三端元的岩石学分类方法,选取长英质矿物、碳酸盐矿物和黏土矿物作为三个端元确定细粒沉积岩的岩石主名,如常见的黏土岩、石灰岩/白云岩、混合沉积岩等[90,131132]。最终形成以有机质含量+沉积构造+岩石学主名的混合型细粒沉积岩岩相综合命名方法[149152]。此类基于物质成分及特征描述的分类方法由于具有易于观察描述,现场操作简便的优点[51],目前大多采用此种分类手段。

        然而,基于矿物成分的岩石学特征分类方案无可避免地存在一个问题,即相同的成分往往代表着不同的物质来源以及成因过程[65,153]。随着显微观测手段的不断进步,多数学者通过对矿物特征(粒度、晶体结构等)以及赋存状态(颗粒/胶结物)的显微特征研究[127,154156],以及对矿物在沉积及成岩过程中的演变过程进行了实验室模拟[157],在一定程度上恢复了细粒沉积岩中不同矿物的来源及形成机制。由此,基于矿物来源及成因的细粒沉积分类方法开始逐渐被大众所接受。如王小军等[158]基于颗粒粒度、成分、结构,选取粒屑(代表砂屑、生屑等生物化学沉积作用的碳酸盐组分),泥(碳酸盐泥和陆源碎屑泥),粉砂(石英、长石岩屑等机械沉积的陆源碎屑组分)作为成因分类的三端元对混合型细粒沉积岩进行划分,同时增加盐组分对岩石类型加以修饰,有效恢复陆相湖盆的咸化过程。但成因分类受到研究技术手段以及端元选取的限制,至今尚未形成统一的分类标准。

        无论采用何种分类方法,其最终划分的岩石类型均具有相似的特征。混合型细粒沉积岩整体具有黏土矿物含量普遍较低,碳酸盐矿物含量较高的特点,沉积构造以纹层状构造为主,次为块状构造,有机质含量较高。本文采用以岩石学为基础的岩相分类法进行归纳,混合型细粒沉积岩中最常见的岩相类型为富有机质层状/纹层状灰岩相、富有机质页状黏土岩相、中有机质纹层状灰质混合沉积岩相、贫有机质块状长英质/黏土质混合沉积岩相等[78,159160]。其中富有机质层状/纹层状灰岩相以浅色碳酸盐纹层与深色富有机质黏土纹层互层为典型特征。浅色碳酸盐纹层厚度大,出现频率高,界限清晰,局部呈脉状或不连续夹层状;黏土纹层内部可见石英颗粒半定向分布,指示牵引流搬运特征;有机质赋存方式以顺层状为主,兼有分散状富集的特点,形成暗色的富有机质层。富有机质页状黏土岩相,也是我们最常见的“黑色页岩”,页理发育,硬度较小,岩心上多沿层理面破碎呈薄片状,镜下观察石英颗粒顺层性及定向性较差,以散乱分布的形式分布其中。中有机质纹层状灰质细粒混合沉积岩相是混合咸化湖盆中最为发育的一类岩相,由颜色较浅的碳酸盐纹层、长英质纹层与暗色有机质含量较高的黏土质纹层在垂向上频繁叠置构成,浅色纹层通常呈连续或不连续透镜状产出,有机质以分散状、断续纹层状及短线状分布在岩石内部[7]。除上述岩相类型外,还包括在物源强度较高或生物贫瘠的条件下形成的贫有机质块状灰质混合沉积岩相、层状粉砂岩相等,通常不作为重点研究内容。

      • 碎屑型细粒沉积岩主要分布在我国松辽盆地的青山口组以及鄂尔多斯盆地的延长组中,与混合型细粒沉积岩不同的是,碎屑型细粒沉积岩所在的淡水湖盆陆源碎屑供应能量较强,以陆源碎屑的机械沉积作用为主,少见盆内自生的生物及化学沉淀物[45]。碎屑型细粒沉积岩分类中同样将有机质丰度[161162]以及沉积构造[111,163166]作为分类标准之一,但在岩石学主名方面,由于碳酸盐的赋存方式、分布及成因存在一定争议,目前碎屑型细粒沉积岩岩石学命名主要存在两种方案。

        第一种“三端元”的岩石学分类方法,即参照混合型细粒岩分类方法,选择黏土矿物、长英质矿物,碳酸盐矿物作为三端元[161162],将岩石类型分为黏土质页岩、长英质页/泥岩、(介壳)灰岩、和混合质页岩等。其中块状长英质泥岩多在浅湖水体动荡的环境下快速沉积形成,有机质含量低,孔隙条件及含油性较差,而纹层发育良好的纹层状混合质页岩是页岩油富集的有利岩相[39]。但随着研究的不断进行,吴松涛[167]通过对松辽盆地古龙页岩油富集部位与岩石类型进行拟合,发现与其他盆地不同,松辽盆地黏土纹层与长英质及钙质纹层相比油气富集情况更好,对此类碎屑型细粒沉积岩分类是否需要如此繁琐再次提出了质疑。且松辽盆地发育以机械沉积作用为主的长英质细粒沉积岩,具有高碳酸盐含量的样品个数较少且集中,多为介壳灰岩呈夹层形式零星分布在细粒沉积的纵向序列之中[39,162],更像是由于突发性事件导致水体生物繁盛后大批量死亡产生钙质骨骼富集从而引起的钙质组分增多,潘树新等[116]也已经证实松辽盆地青山口组存在多期由于介形虫集群性死亡事件产生的介形虫层,并认为基准面的周期性下降造成水体变浅、矿化度增高以及陆源碎屑输入量增高都会导致局部钙质骨骼富集。总体上看,松辽盆地细粒沉积以粉砂和黏土交替出现为主,碳酸盐含量较低,通常作为胶结物或夹层形式存在。因此,笔者更倾向于第二种碎屑型细粒沉积岩岩石学分类方案。

        第二种划分方案不再拘泥于岩石成分,而是将碎屑岩粒度作为确定岩石主名的标准,首先利用宏观构造特征将其分为页理(单层厚度小于0.01 m)发育的“页岩”以及块状构造的“泥岩”[10,165166],随后结合粒度特征将其分为泥岩/页岩、粉砂质泥岩、粉砂质页岩[164,168]。并针对其中含油气性较好的页岩,根据其内部纹层的产状以及连续性[169170]将页岩相进一步细分为波状纹层页岩,水平纹层状页岩,透镜纹层状页岩,(均质)页岩等。整体来说,与混合型细粒沉积岩相比,碎屑型细粒沉积的岩石类型简单,岩石分类方案单一,以粒级、沉积构造作为分类依据,结合有机质含量将其划分为“贫、中、富有机质的泥岩或页岩”,更有利于后续研究工作的开展。

        碎屑型细粒沉积岩中泥岩与页岩在空间上互补交替出现[169170],其中泥岩颜色变化范围较大,石英、长石等长英质矿物含量较高且呈纹层、脉状分布其中,取心过程中不易破碎,单层厚度较大,块状泥岩内部槽模、沟模、火焰构造等变形构造发育[111,165,169],指示高能环境中的快速沉积过程,推测此类泥岩形成于水体动荡,含氧量高,物源碎屑供给丰富的环境,不利于有机质的生成和保存,故有机质丰度较低[171];而页岩的黏土矿物含量更高,颜色更深,以黑色、黑褐色为主,页理发育,取心时易沿层理面发生破碎,存在少量生物碎屑,指示陆源碎屑供给不足,沉积速率低,有机质富集,是碎屑型细粒沉积岩开发的有利岩相[34,172]

        对不同细粒沉积体系分类方案总结(表1)发现,无论是哪种类型的细粒沉积体系,何种岩相分类方案,其目的都是为了结合区域沉积构造背景,通过对不同岩石类型组合、不同沉积构造特征的样品进行环境特征恢复乃至成因过程的耦合,建立具有代表性的细粒沉积模式,以指导非常规油气的勘探与开发。但由于细粒沉积过程的复杂性和多解性,我们很难找到某个或某几个泛用性极高的岩相类型表征其形成环境及成因过程,目前通常采用模拟细粒沉积岩的特殊构造,尤其是“纹层”形成过程的方法,近似恢复其形成时期的流体特征及搬运—沉积的动力学机制。

        表 1  陆相混合型细粒沉积岩与碎屑型细粒沉积岩划分方案

        岩石大类分类依据典型研究者及研究对象分类结果
        混合型细粒沉积岩岩石学特征赵建华等[90] 四川盆地龙马溪组李书琴等[131],葸克来等[132]吉木萨尔凹陷芦草沟组粉砂岩、黏土岩,灰岩白云岩,灰质混合沉积岩, 长英质混合沉积岩,黏土质混合沉积岩等
        沉积构造岩石学特征刘姝君等[150]东营凹陷沙三下—沙四上亚段邓远等[151] 沧东凹陷孔店组二段周立宏等[152] 歧口凹陷沙一段下亚段块状长英质页岩、纹层状长英质页岩;纹层状黏土质页岩; 纹层状灰质页岩;块状白云质页岩、白云岩; 纹层状碳酸盐质/长英质/黏土质混合页岩等
        有机质含量沉积构造岩石学特征吴靖等[77],张顺等[159]彭丽等[125]济阳凹陷沙三下亚段渤海湾盆地东营凹陷沙三下—沙四上亚段刘忠宝等[128]四川盆地中下侏罗统含有机质纹层状泥质灰岩、富有机质纹层状泥质灰岩、 富有机质纹层状灰质泥岩、富有机质层状灰质泥岩、 富有机质层状泥质灰岩以及富有机质块状泥质灰岩等
        有机质含量沉积构造成因类型陈世悦等[91],宁方兴等[141] 渤海湾盆地东营凹陷王小军等[158]吉木萨尔凹陷芦草沟组块状/纹层状/团块状(长英质黏土质)碳酸盐型细粒混积岩等; 富有机质纹层状隐晶泥质灰岩等
        碎屑型细粒沉积岩有机质含量沉积构造岩石学特征柳波等[39],王岚等[161]松辽盆地古龙凹陷青山口组张君峰等[111]松辽盆地南部青山口组富有机质黏土质页岩、富有机质长英质页岩、贫有机质长英质泥岩、 富有机质混合质页岩(如含生屑长英质页岩、长英质泥灰岩)、贫有机质介壳灰岩
        有机质含量(沉积构造)碎屑岩粒级柳波等[162]松辽盆地长岭凹陷青山口组耳闯等[163],付金华等[168]鄂尔多斯盆地延长组高有机质薄片状页岩相、中有机质块状泥岩相、 中有机质纹层状页岩相、低有机质纹层状页岩相和低有机质砂岩夹层相
      • Selvaraj et al.[173]通过对我国东南部湖泊沉积岩心的沉积学、物理学、地球化学分析,证实湖泊中细粒沉积物组分构成显示出多种搬运—沉积特征,揭示了细粒沉积过程的复杂性。本文总结了有关细粒沉积岩中最为常见的黏土质、长英质、灰质/白云质细粒沉积岩形成以及有机质赋存过程的相关成果,旨在加深细粒沉积岩成因机理的相关认识。

      • 黏土是细粒沉积岩中最常见的组分,与满足斯托克定律的非黏性颗粒不同,单黏土颗粒在流体中长时间处于悬浮状态不易发生沉积,需要依靠絮凝作用发生沉降[6,174175]。Curran et al.[176]通过对美国鳗鱼河入海泥浆粒度及成分的测量,证实絮状物是细黏土颗粒物质发生沉积时最主要的形态,且絮凝体的尺寸与泥浆浓度、流体流量、动能、距离河口远近、风速、波高等环境常量无关,这是因为絮凝是黏性颗粒物质本身固有的属性。细颗粒泥沙在水中呈悬浮状态时,由于表面物理化学作用而带有一定符号的电荷,吸引周围的异号离子及水分子紧密围绕在其周围并形成吸附水膜。当同样带有吸附水膜的两颗粒相互靠近时就会形成公共的扩散层即反离子层,使他们紧紧地结合成絮团,扩散层越薄,吸附能力越强,絮团尺寸越大[173]。上述由于细颗粒表面物化作用产生吸附力形成的聚集往往被称为“盐絮凝”[177178],而由真菌、细菌和浮游生物排泄的产生的黏性胞外聚合物物质(EPS)使细颗粒发生聚集的过程则被称为“生物絮凝”[179181],二者可能同时存在,并相互促进,但生物絮凝作用始终占据主导地位[181]。综上所述,细粒物质形成的絮凝体大小只与颗粒表面的物理化学作用强度以及生物作用的强弱有关[182],但总览目前细粒沉积过程模拟实验,虽然明确了生物黏聚力对于细粒沉积形态存在影响[180182],但仍然未找到合适的表征参数将生物作用纳入细粒沉积成因过程模拟[183184],导致模拟的结果与自然界存在一定偏差。

        当黏土以絮凝体形式发生沉积时,主要存在两种方式,其一为悬浮沉降模式[185186]。Kranck et al.[185]通过将实验室构建的重力沉降物理模型与现实中不同地理环境细粒沉积物质粒度图谱进行比对,证实细粒沉积体系中存在“一次”悬浮沉降形成的黏土物质,此类黏土沉积不经过后期搬运、改造,只与自身粒径、形态与水动力强度有关。陆相湖盆中该过程主要发生在湖泊中心静水区[187191],形成无特殊纹层构造的块状泥岩。此外由河流、风力及大气粉尘、气溶胶带来的细粒物质通过环流和混合扩散的方式以悬移质迁移至湖盆中心[185,189190],过程中较粗的颗粒由于水体流速降低不断从温跃层中沉降形成长英质纹层,而较细的黏土及有机质则以弥散悬浮状态集中在温跃层内,后期由于气候[192193]、温度[194]、盐度[195196]、生物作用强度[197]变化使得温跃层消失,平衡状态破坏,悬浮物静沉降通量增大,并在水体分层的条件下被保存,最终形成与季节和气候相关的纹层状或层状泥岩[188,198199]

        随着细粒沉积相关水槽实验及现场监测数据分析研究的不断深入,由于黏性细颗粒物质组成的絮凝体在搬运及沉积过程中可以表现出与粗粒碎屑等效的非黏性特征[200],絮凝体沉积存在第二种方式,即“平流运输”模式[200202],该模式下通常形成纹层状页岩。Schieber et al.[201]通过模拟不同类型黏土颗粒在不同水体盐度、沉积物浓度及流速下混合泥浆中的搬运沉积过程时,发现絮状体丰度会随着流速的降低不断增加,当到达临界沉积速度后,絮状体会形成流线型波纹并不断向下游移动(图3)。该临界速度与初始沉积物浓度有关,沉积物的临界速度在浓度较低时最低至10 m/s,而当沉积物浓度升高至1~2 g/L时,该临界速度可上升至26 m/s,该速度区间内,黏土物质均可以形成絮状波纹发生迁移而不被破坏,打破了黏土物质只能在低能静水条件下沉积的局限性。此类絮状波纹通过朵叶体不断崩塌前积向下游移动,内部存在低角度倾斜纹层,但由于其在底面流动时存在30~40 cm的间距,沉积后一旦被完全压实,波纹内部倾斜薄层将不可识别,最终形成平行的黏土质纹层[201202]

        图  3  水流速度、悬浮物浓度和波纹形态关系图[201]

        Figure 3.  Flow velocity,suspended sediment concentration, and ripple appearance[201]

      • 陆相湖盆中长英质沉积物多指陆源碎屑组分,主要发生机械沉积作用,为典型的非黏性颗粒,沉积过程满足斯托克定律[110]。当长英质碎屑由陆源河流搬运进入湖盆时,受到重力、浮力、底床剪切引起的拖曳力、上举力的共同作用,当负载其的水动力减弱,颗粒运动速度降低,重力逐渐占据主导地位,长英质沉积物在近岸处发生机械分异并沉降形成块状具有波状层理或低角度交错层理的粉砂岩及长英质泥岩,向湖盆中心水动力逐渐减弱,粒度减小直至过渡为泥岩沉积[203]。而在湖盆细粒沉积岩的实际分布中不难发现,湖盆内部甚至中心处同样存在代表快速沉积、较高能水流层理的块状、层状甚至纹层状长英质泥岩相[196,204205],证明除上述机理外,存在其他的动力学机制,将长英质矿物长距离搬运至湖盆深处沉积。

        现代沉积及古代沉积地层均可证实粉砂级的长英质沉积物可以受到后续风暴流、底流等作用发生剥蚀呈再悬浮状态,并作为推移质与黏土絮凝体一起在湖底发生长距离运输,沉降形成层状、纹层状粉砂质泥岩[197,203204]。能够使沉积物发生长距离运输的流体包括但不仅限于洪水成因异轻流、异重流[66,175,206]、浊流[207209]的长距离搬运和风力驱动环流形成絮凝羽状流[83,210]等。早在2002年,Curran et al.[176]便证实黏土絮凝体与非黏性粗长英质颗粒是河水密度羽流的重要组成部分,并在密度羽流向湖盆中心运移时,风力驱动的上升流和环流会为细粒沉积碎屑物质进行二次补给,且粗粒成分在斜坡处略有增加,证实高密度流如浊流、风驱底流同样会对细粒沉积产生影响。异重流、浊流、碎屑流等不同形式底流主要通过牵引作用搬运碎屑物质,既可以单独对细粒沉积作用,也可以交互共同作用于湖盆深水细粒沉积体系,形成丘状层理、脉状层理、粒序层理等特殊沉积构造特征[91,205,211217]。陈世悦等[91]通过小尺度岩心、微观结构分析发现位于洼陷中部的樊页1井广泛发育砂质团块及不同类型纹层互层的特征,内部脉状、水平、波状、透镜状层理等典型的牵引流成因构造发育。并在北部陡坡深水区对应岩心上找到了与激发型重力流对应的揉皱、变形和滑动面构造,以及代表浊流的粒序层理浊积岩,证实渤海湾盆地东营凹陷沙河街组细粒沉积为重力流与浊流共同作用的结果。潘树新等[205]利用松辽盆地的岩心及青海湖卫星照片资料,对湖盆深水区底流改造沉积物特征、识别标志、分布特征进行了分析,识别出湖盆中心存在重力块体流、浊流、风驱底流改造沉积,并认为风驱底流是形成深水细粒沉积的主要成因。笔者在松辽盆地长岭凹陷同样发现了具有牵引流特征的细粒沉积物证实了这一说法(图4)。

        图  4  松辽盆地南部青山口组细粒沉积周期性底流作用标志

        Figure 4.  Periodic underflow of fine⁃grained sediments of Qingshankou Formation in southern Songliao Basin

        通过上述流体搬运最终形成粉砂纹层的过程是复杂的,絮凝体的内部并非由纯黏土物质构成,而是由底部边界沉积层中湍流悬浮的所有颗粒组分共同构成的,这其中既包含较粗的长英质碎屑又包含较细的黏土质碎屑[218]。由于絮凝体可以在搬运过程中呈现与长英质沉积物相似的非黏性特征,故二者共同在流体中被搬运时,在相对较高的区域,由于水体能量周期性变化发生机械分异作用,形成层状或块状的粉砂岩及粉砂质泥岩,黏土纹层以夹层的形式分布其中[201,219]。而随着水体不断向湖盆中心迁移,流速逐渐下降至25 cm/s时,粗粒的长英质沉积物基本沉积完毕,絮凝体构成主要的推移质载荷,稳定沉降至湖底,并在底面翻滚和弹跳,絮凝体发生破坏,内部粗颗粒被释放,粉砂和黏土颗粒分离,分别形成粉砂质波纹和泥质波纹,同一时间内在湖底发生迁移,并在尾部形成薄薄的沉积层[201202,220222]。大量波纹随着时间的推移不断在湖底移动,形成随机分布的粉砂及泥质纹层,但若想持续形成此类互层结构,需要存在持续稳定的沉积物供应,并使粉砂及泥质波纹保持该状态在底床发生长距离迁移。因此,在岩心上往往看不到大段完整泥质及粉砂纹层互层结构,而是显示如图4a中由于物源供给不充分导致的微细纹层、不连续纹层甚至透镜体等沉积构造特征(图5)。除此之外,近岸处未完全固结的粉砂级碎屑被剥蚀并发生二次搬运至湖盆中心,与上述饱含水的黏土絮团共同沉降至湖底,在上覆埋深作用下发生差异压实作用同样可以形成粉砂质透镜体[221222]

        图  5  不同沉积物供应量下的纹层形成过程[222]

        Figure 5.  Lamina formation for different sediment supply[222]

      • 钙质(碳酸盐)混合细粒沉积沉积岩常见于咸水—半咸水的混合沉积体系[223]。过去碳酸盐组分往往代表低能的沉积环境[224225],春秋两季富含碳酸钙的底层水体由于温跃层的消失,发生循环进入表层水,并在冬夏水体分层时期由于水体盐度不断增大,在表层形成细粒方解石并发生沉淀形成碳酸盐纹层[78,224]

        此外,部分学者认为碳酸盐沉积物与黏土物质颗粒类似,可以通过絮凝体发生沉积[224,226]。Schieber et al.[227]对碳酸盐的絮凝沉积进行了补充实验,通过观察从自然界中收集的含碳酸盐泥浆在水槽中的沉积过程,建立了不同流速及床面剪切应力下泥浆迁移形态。如图6所示,首先明确粒径大于50 μm的颗粒为絮状体,可以观察到在水流速度以及剪切应力逐渐增大的过程中,颗粒构成中絮凝体比例随流速提升逐渐降低,非黏性“粗”颗粒占比逐渐升高,最终作为主要的推移质进行移动并形成椭圆状粗粒波纹;与之相反的是,当水流速度下降时,由于絮凝体在砂纹中所占比例增加,波纹形态也发生变化,尾部伸长合并,黏性特征越来越明显。甚至当流速低于15 m/s以下时,粗粒非黏性颗粒彻底消失,仅保留由絮凝体形成的波纹尾部前后相连形成的宽阔带状体。在实验观察过程中发现,当流速达到28 m/s,剪切应力达到0.25 Pa时,絮状体强度能够克服剪切应力保持稳定,砂砾大小的絮状颗粒和非黏性的颗粒将同时作为推移质向前移动,逐渐向前垮塌使尾部堆积伸长,形成凹凸不平的床形,该底床载荷由富含粉砂及碳酸盐絮凝体的薄层组成,经后期压实后形成长英质及灰质纹层互层现象。该实验有效证实碳酸盐絮凝作用的存在,并丰富了灰质/长英质混合沉积岩的成因机理,即除沉积供应能量及水体性质的变化导致间歇性沉积作用和后期改造形成的异期纹层外[78],底流携带载荷类型变化同样可以形成由碳酸盐及长英质沉积物构成的同期纹层[226]

        图  6  碳酸盐沉积波纹形态与流速及剪切应力的关系[227]

        Figure 6.  Relationship between ripple shape of carbonate deposition and velocity and shear stress[227]

      • 细粒沉积岩中的有机质存在分散状及层状两种富集形式[113,166],富集程度受原始生产力和同沉积期及后期保存条件的双重控制[225,228229]。Tyson[228]通过对现代沉积中的沉积速率与有机碳含量的多元回归分析拟合得出沉积速率与有机质含量呈负相关关系,同时发现,当水中溶解氧量小于4 mL/L时,有机质富集总量是富氧条件下的2.5~4倍,证实贫氧、低沉积速率是确保有机物堆积不被稀释的关键。各大盆地烃源岩层系中广泛发育的黄铁矿[230231]也为该理论提供支撑,黄铁矿粒径越小,证实沉积时期水体含氧量越低,越有利于有机质的保存[232234]

        除上述保存条件外,由于水体咸度变化[166]和火山、热液活动及[235238]盆外火山物质注入都[94,239]会造成有机物的生产能力提高,从而引起有机质的富集。如赵文智等[165]通过对鄂尔多斯衣食村剖面的沉积物及有机质含量测算,发现当水体盐度从1%增加到3%时,有机质捕获效率提高300%;当沉积物浓度从2%上升至4%时,有机质捕获效率提高100%,证实适当的咸化环境可以有效促进有机质絮凝从而提高有机质捕获效率,更有利于有机质的富集[166,240242]。另一方面,早在1985年Zimmerle[243]通过对世界广泛分布页岩层系的横向对比,发现有机质富集带中往往含有大量的火山物质,证实火山活动可以有效提高生物生产力,促进有机质的富集。这是由于火山活动时,深层热液注入以及火山灰沉落都会为藻类勃发提供充分的营养物质,有效提高有机质原始生产力[85,236237,242246],最终形成富含有机质的纹层状及透镜状页岩,其中透镜状页岩是由于与火山活动相伴生的强烈构造作用引起底流的二次改造,在差异压实作用下形成粉砂或生物颗粒的透镜体[94,246]

      • 如何表征不同类型细粒沉积岩的宏观分布规律及影响因素,刻画不同沉积组分的成因机理及控制因素,将细粒沉积体系纳入现有的宏观大尺度沉积体系是建立陆相湖盆细粒沉积模式需要解决的主要问题[246250]。针对上述问题,目前有关细粒沉积模式建立主要可以分为三个主要方向:1)指向油气分布评价的“细粒沉积有机质富集模式”[1,38,161,251256];2)指向湖盆古环境重建的以不同岩石类型空间分布规律为核心的“细粒沉积岩相分布模式”[111,160161,163,166,168]

        3)指向以建立与常规体系统一的“源—汇”系统为目的,以形成过程、机制响应恢复为核心的“细粒沉积成因模式”[31,82,92,257258]。三种方向侧重点不同,在进行陆相湖盆细粒沉积模式研究时,需要明确研究方向,选择合适的标准进行细粒沉积模式的构建。

        郭英海等[251]基于文献计量学对近年来细粒沉积研究动态分析时发现,无论是细粒沉积岩分类相关的成分、成因以及结构研究,还是作为源—储一体的非常规油气载体的生烃能力以及含油气性能研究,其最终目的都是为了指导非常规油气地质勘探与选区评价。国内外学者针对具有良好开发潜力的富有机质页岩,构建了一系列以有机质富集为核心的沉积模式[1,38,161,252256],概括起来主要包括水体分层模式,湖侵模式和门槛模式三种[38]。第一种湖侵模式(图7a)[125,161,252254]通常与层序地层学中基准面旋回联系在一起,是由于相对湖平面上升,氧气无法到达湖底,在深水区形成大面积缺氧环境,从而使有机质富集形成黑色页岩。然而仍有部分学者认为仅靠湖平面的快速上升无法有效的使沉积物聚集[161,255],如王岚等[161]在对青山口组的沉积环境参数测算中发现,代表湖泊盐度的Sr/Ba值在青一段初期部分样品点中大于3.3,指示盐度在淡水及咸水之间变化,推测青一段存在间歇性海侵作用。以潘树新等[116]为代表的一些学者认为松辽盆地缺乏海相地层沉积特征,且古生物学、矿物学、地球化学等资料均不能提供海水入侵的可靠证据,是否存在海侵仍需要进一步的验证。第二种的水体分层模式[256,259262]是指在温度、盐度或生物活动强度等差异作用下,汇水盆地中由于水体温度不同而形成纵向密度分层,表层水体与底层水体不发生物质交换,底层水体含氧量骤减,形成适合有机质富集的贫氧环境。生物在底层水体中难以存活,有利于有机质的保存,可以说水体分层是绝大多数富有机质细粒沉积岩形成的前提条件[262]。第三种门槛沉积模式[38]可以分为高门槛和低门槛两种,“高门槛模式”(图7b,c)与第二种水体分层模式类似,指湖盆一侧存在由退覆体或断层岩体造成遮挡,外源水体无法影响湖盆深部水体而造成水体分层现象,使得底部水体呈有利于有机质富集的贫氧、还原条件。而“低门槛模式”则不再具有水体分层特征,是在水体较浅的情况下,由于生物分解过程中将水体氧气大量消耗,使得整个水体呈还原环境,形成以高等植物为主要有机质类型的煤系泥页岩沉积。此类沉积模式可以有效评价盆地含油气性,但由于缺少空间上岩相或沉积相的约束,始终无法精准确定富有机质细粒沉积岩特征及其分布规律,且由于不同类型细粒沉积岩的脆性、各向异性等工程特征差异巨大,在一定程度上制约了非常规油气的开采效率。

        图  7  陆相湖盆富有机质细粒页岩沉积模式图[38]

        Figure 7.  Sedimentary pattern of fine⁃grained shale enrichment in continental lake basin[38]

        为了更好地了解不同岩相类型细粒沉积岩的空间分布规律,部分学者提出了基于岩相—沉积环境耦合的细粒沉积模式构建方法[113,160161,168],即利用不同沉积环境参数特征恢复细粒沉积岩石类型在平面及纵向的变化规律,建立不同岩相的空间展布样式。该类型在混合型细粒沉积岩中更为常见,如杜学斌等[160]将东营凹陷分为了陡坡带、湖心区、缓坡带和台地礁滩,不同岩相类型的细粒沉积岩在平面上呈环带分布。其中盆地缓坡边缘蒸发作用较强烈,常见碳酸盐沉积,向湖依次发育缓坡混合带(包括灰—泥二元混积外带、砂—灰—泥三元混积内带)的层状或块状混积岩相,湖心处陆源碎屑较少,以纹层状的灰—泥混积岩相为主。而陆源输入占主导的陡坡区,以机械沉积作用为主,近岸处能量较高,主要发育块状粉砂质泥岩相,近湖一侧黏土矿物成分增多呈现砂—灰—泥三元混合沉积特征,发育层状粉砂质及灰质混积岩相,局部可见块状变形构造(图8)。陆源碎屑湖盆同样可以采用此种方案[113,163,166,168],即浅水近岸斜坡处以粉砂质泥岩和暗色泥岩组合为主,深湖则多见暗色富有机质页岩,泥岩与页岩的分布范围基本不重合,平面上呈互补式分布[113,166]。而垂向上,岩相类型及组合方式主要受沉积环境的演化过程控制[163,168],若湖盆水体萎缩变浅,湖盆逐渐充填,湖相细粒沉积岩中粉砂纹层出现频率逐渐升高,岩相组合将呈现由富有机质页岩岩相向暗色泥岩岩相、粉砂质泥岩岩相,甚至是粉砂岩岩相过渡的特征[168]。此类岩相—环境耦合的沉积模式可以有效指示不同类型岩相的空间分布范围对非常规油气勘探具有重要的指导作用,但由于盆地地质条件的差异,此类沉积模式具有极强的区域性,难以进行推广和类比。

        图  8  基于岩相—沉积环境的陆相细粒沉积模式[160]

        Figure 8.  Continental fine⁃grained sedimentary model based on lithofacies sedimentary environment[160]

        因此,为建立宏观统一的“源—汇”系统,将细粒沉积与常规沉积体系有机融合。部分学者尝试将成因机制引入细粒沉积模式,恢复湖盆内不同位置的沉积作用类型、过程机理,构建不同成因类型岩相空间分布模式[31,82,92,257258]。其中海相细粒沉积岩率先采用此种方案[92,257258],Plint et al.[92]通过恢复泥浆在陆架上的输送过程及其对古环境及地层层序的响应,构建了加拿大西部前陆盆地陆架海侵—高位域和海退—低位域两种细粒沉积模式。其中的海侵模式与陆相湖盆湖侵作用形成的碎屑型细粒沉积特征类似[263],洪水期陆源注入的碎屑物质进入湖盆后形成半固结的泥床,并在后期风暴及波浪的作用下被反复改造再次悬浮后,经混合流搬运沿湖底运输,与经悬浮羽流搬运,由枯水期河流、风浪作用搬运而来的沉积物一道进入湖盆中心并发生沉积(图9b)。然而,咸化湖盆沉积作用更为复杂[82,264],如刘惠民等[82]在对东营凹陷沙四上亚段细粒混积岩组构与沉积环境分析后认为,该时期具有断陷特征,存在缓坡以及陡坡两个截然不同的沉积环境,湖盆中心位于近陡坡一侧;上述不同的环境中的水体特征以及发生的主要沉积作用类型与盆地内细粒沉积的岩石组分、有机质丰度、沉积构造存在良好的耦合关系,因此将东营凹陷沙四上亚段细粒沉积体系进行浅湖—半深湖—深湖的成因空间分区。浅湖区陆源碎屑物源供给充分,黏土絮团与长英、长石构成的粗颗粒在进入湖盆后发生机械分异作用,粗颗粒物质不断沉降,部分黏土絮团仍以层间流形式向湖盆中心继续迁移,随着水体能量逐渐下降,最终以机械作用的形式沉降下来,在浅湖区粗碎屑边缘形成带状分布的层状砂/灰质泥岩相;半深湖区水体安静、清澈,阳光充足,由于浅湖区和深湖区(季节性水体交换)带来的大量营养物质,生物通常呈季节性爆发生长,以生物化学作用为主,碳酸盐类矿物明显富集;深湖区由于靠近陡坡带,水动力强,负载量大,且存在不同方向不同性质的水体混合,局部发育快速堆积形成块状或层状(砂质)泥岩相,湖盆中心静水区则多以黏土与藻类的悬浮沉降作用为主,形成具有黏土—有机质纹层的纹层状泥质灰岩或灰质泥岩相(图9a)。值得注意的是,此类成因分类方案中,依然采用细粒沉积的岩石学类型分布作为耦合标准[31,82],与细粒沉积的成因分类方案结合并不紧密。

        图  9  陆相混合型及碎屑型细粒沉积岩成因模式(修改自刘惠民等[82]

        Figure 9.  Genetic model of continental mixed and clastic fine⁃grained sedimentary rocks (modified from Liu et al.[82])

      • 目前有关陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩分类、成因及沉积模式的研究仍然存在以下问题。

        (1) 有关陆相细粒沉积的分类方案众多,但受微观尺度下细粒沉积岩中不同成因矿物特征识别的限制,仍然以描述性的分类为主。截至目前,已有无数的研究证实细粒沉积的过程可以与层序地层学[264267]以及源—汇系统理论[268269]相结合,跨学科的细粒沉积研究可以更加有效地预测细粒沉积岩岩石类型以及空间组合模式。这就要求我们必须加强关于细粒沉积岩微观岩石学、矿物学[90]甚至古生物学[269]的研究,如通过微观结构及地球化学特征对具有不同物质来源自生石英以及不同成岩特征的次生石英加以区分,可以进一步明确细粒沉积成岩改造的影响[90]。建立科学统一的成因分类,恢复细粒沉积形成过程及成因机制,才能构建全面且具有泛用性的细粒沉积模式,如若不然,与诸如三角洲等常规“粗粒”沉积模式进行连接和统一时终究会面对不小的麻烦。

        (2) 具体进行陆相混合型细粒沉积岩成因分类时,如何选取三个成因端元仍然存在一定问题。目前有关细粒沉积的“多物质来源,多成因机制”已经被逐渐认可[74,245,270],但国内外有关混合型细粒沉积岩的研究多集中在硅质碎屑—碳酸盐混合沉积作用之上。通过前文可发现无论是在进行细粒沉积分类时选取的三端元图解中缺少代表火山碎屑成分的端元,还是在沉积模式建立上将此类混合沉积岩简单地归为陆源碎屑注入和湖相生物—化学沉淀的混合,都忽略了火山活动以及热液喷流对细粒沉积带来的影响。近年来,已有不少学者证实火山活动频繁的地区与现今油田分布范围存在一定的重合[237],如准噶尔吉木萨尔凹陷便存在大量的火山活动的证据,且对细粒沉积存在一定的改造作用[80,271]。但火山及热液活动对有机质富集促进作用的研究也仅停留在观察统计的层面上[94],缺乏更深层次的机理分析及实验模拟。此外,地球深部物质在细粒沉积岩形成时以何种相互作用机理,何种演变方式,何种赋存状态与碳酸盐以及陆源碎屑组分进行混合,更需要进一步地探索,以期在未来能够找到恰当的火山作用表征参数,被应用到细粒沉积的成因分类以及相关模式的建立。

        (3) 细粒沉积岩的成因分类以及成因模式建立目前已经有了长足的进步,但二者相关性依然较差,目前的成因模式中讨论的岩石类型依然是基于岩石学特征进行划分的。如何将细粒沉积的显微结构与具体的成因过程相结合,规范细粒沉积成因模式中的岩相成因类型,是目前细粒沉积成因模式建立亟需解决的重点问题。

        (4) 细粒沉积成因过程模拟采用的实验设备和技术相对落后,无法恢复自然界中复杂的沉积现象,且细粒沉积由于粒度过小,容易受到内部其他颗粒以及实验中边界条件的影响使实验结果产生偏差[271274]。此外,由于目前实验设计过于简单,往往集中于某个小尺度单一过程通量的搬运、沉积模拟,缺乏代表生物作用、成岩作用的环境常量[274276]。上述两点问题的存在,导致目前细粒沉积模拟实验模型能否直接应用到百年乃至千年尺度的自然界中备受质疑[277278]。亟需加强沉积过程中小尺度模拟实验研究[279281],尤其针对细颗粒内部相互作用、沉降机制和近底床沉积过程的模拟,从而建立细粒沉积中沉积物搬运—沉积方式与流体流变特征的关系,恢复颗粒“触发—搬运—沉降”过程。同时,加强不同学科融合,探索能够有效表征参与细粒沉积过程的生物作用、火山活动以及成岩改造的环境参数,构建与自然界等效性更好的实验模型。

      • (1) 与海相沉积不同,陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩由于矿物成分、结构各异,沉积—成岩机制复杂,加之不同学者的研究领域及目的不同,有关陆相湖盆细粒沉积分类方案以及沉积模式一直没有达成共识。

        (2) 依据不同陆相湖盆细粒沉积岩的岩石学特征,将我国陆相细粒沉积岩分为混合型细粒沉积岩以及碎屑型细粒沉积岩,混合型细粒沉积岩主要采用“有机质含量+沉积构造+(三端元)岩石学主名”的岩相分类法,碎屑型细粒沉积岩除上述分类方法外,可以用岩石粒度特征替代以碳酸盐、黏土、石英/长石为三端元的岩石学特征进行岩性主名的确定。

        (3) 系统归纳了目前有关细粒沉积岩中黏土质、长英质、钙质(碳酸盐)组分以及有机质的迁移、沉降、保存机理的认识。突破以往细颗粒只能在静水条件下沉积的限制,泥级的碳酸盐、黏土矿物通过絮凝作用形成絮团,以与粗颗粒等效的方式通过湖盆内不同类型流体搬运而发生长距离运输并与较粗的粉砂级颗粒共同发生沉积。向湖盆中心靠近时,由于水体能量下降,絮团崩解,内部较粗的粉砂颗粒被释放,与黏土颗粒一道以絮状波纹的形式不断迁移,沉积压实后可以形成水平/波状纹层、透镜状纹层等典型的细粒沉积岩结构。

        (4) 细粒沉积岩的有机质含量主要受原始生产力和同沉积期及后期保存条件的双重控制,其中高原始生产力、贫氧、低沉积速率、适当咸化的水体、火山物质和热液注入都有利于有机质的富集。

        (5) 根据研究方向的差异,将目前细粒沉积模式分为三种,即指向油气分布评价的“有机质富集模式”,指向湖盆古环境重建的以不同岩石类型空间分布规律为核心的“岩相分布模式”,以及指向以建立与常规体系统一的“源—汇”系统为目的,以形成过程、机制响应恢复为核心的“成因模式”。指出加强细粒沉积岩中不同矿物成分的微观结构特征、沉积—成岩机理认识,将岩石的微观成因分类方案与宏观成因模式有效融合是未来细粒沉积研究的关键。

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