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三角洲的概念最早由Barrell(1912)提出,他认为“三角洲是河流在一个稳定水体中或紧靠水体处形成的、部分露出水面的一种沉积物”[1]。随着对三角洲沉积研究的深入,学者们也提出了更加具体准确的概念,三角洲是河流等水流携带大量沉积物入海(湖)时在河口地带堆积形成的、总体呈朵状的沉积体,三角洲的形成是携带泥沙的水流与海洋或湖泊水动力的共同影响下形成的[2-4]。沉积体系是指具有统一物源、统一水流动力体制的、在成因上有共生关系的沉积组合而成的巨大三维沉积体[4-5]。目前研究中三角洲沉积体系没有统一的分类标准,有学者按照三角洲发育过程的沉积方式将三角洲沉积体系分为进积型和退积型进行研究[6-7],这是目前较为全面的一种分类方法;而大多数学者根据研究需要对湖泊扇三角洲体系、辫状三角洲沉积体系、河控三角洲沉积体系等进行研究[6, 8-9],分类方法多种多样。本文按照水流入海或入湖将三角洲沉积体系分为三角洲—浅海沉积体系、三角洲—湖泊沉积体系,并结合三角洲的分类类型进一步划分为扇三角洲—浅海(湖泊)沉积体系、辫状河三角洲—浅海(湖泊)沉积体系、正常三角洲—浅海(湖泊)沉积体系[10]。
三角洲沉积体系具备良好的生储盖配置条件,现有研究主要是对三角洲沉积体系油气储层进行研究[11-14],也有部分学者对三角洲沉积体系烃源岩进行了研究[15-16],对三角洲沉积体系展开深入研究对油气的勘探开发有重要的意义。三角洲—浅海沉积体系由于同时接受陆源物质与海洋生物的供给而同时具有陆源有机质和海洋有机质,且近年来越来越多的勘探实例表明,深水区域存在陆源有机质的贡献,这引起了人们对三角洲—浅海沉积体系陆源有机质分布的重视,也有学者对三角洲—浅海沉积体系陆源有机质分布规律进行了相关研究[17],但并未对三角洲—浅海沉积体系陆源有机质分布的控制因素进行系统探讨。
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在三角洲—浅海沉积体系中,陆源有机质与沉积物一起被水流输送到海洋,绝大部分颗粒有机质会保存在边缘海的沉积物中[29],而溶解有机质则形成絮凝体或经生物作用形成生物残体或粪球粒进行沉积。有机质通常以吸附态附着在沉积物颗粒表面,所吸附的量与沉积物的比表面积有关[41-42],因此,物源供给量及物源比表面积相关因素均对陆源有机质分布有控制作用,沉积物比表面积受沉积碎屑粒度、植物碎屑输入、沉积物矿物成分等因素影响。溶解有机质的生物降解过程受初始有机质组成的影响[28]。
沉积物粒径越小,其比表面积越大,可吸附的有机质越多。因此,一般情况下总有机碳含量与沉积碎屑粒度呈负相关关系,这在诸多实际研究中也得到了证实[29-31, 35-38, 43]。李中乔[29]在对越南红河水下三角洲的研究和Hu et al.[31]在对渤海和黄海陆架沉积物的研究均表明,表层沉积物中TOC与沉积物粒径呈明显的负相关关系(图 1a,b);Ramaswamy et al.[30]对伊洛瓦底大陆架和王润梅等[43]对环渤海地区河流河口表层沉积物的研究中,均发现沉积物中黏土含量与TOC含量有较好的正相关关系(图 1c),于培松等[35]对长江口和东海海域沉积物的研究中发现黏土和粉砂含量与TOC含量有较好的正相关关系(图 1d),沉积物中黏土与粉砂均为细粒沉积物,其含量与TOC含量呈正相关关系进一步印证了沉积物粒度与TOC含量呈负相关关系。即有机质具有亲细粒性。
但在现代沉积中,也存在有机碳含量与粒径呈正相关的情况,如来自密西西比河下游的沉积物中发现细粒沉积物含量与总有机碳含量呈正相关(图 2),且颗粒态木质素的∑8(∑8为每100 mg颗粒态样品的酚单体的S、V、C系列单体的总和,用于反映木质素含量)与粒度呈正相关关系,说明沉积物中混入了大量的植物碎屑,植物碎屑的粒径很大,但是含有极高的木质素,因此才会出现有机碳和粒径成正相关的现象[38]。因此植物碎屑的输入会引起陆源有机质分布规律的异常。
Figure 2. Relationship between fine matter content and TOC in the lower Mississippi River (data from reference [44])
沉积物颗粒的矿物组成是决定颗粒比表面积的重要因素,不同类型矿物的比表面积有较大的差异(表 1)[45],尤其是黏土矿物,且由于不同黏土矿物的结构与性质差异,对有机质的吸附作用也有一定的差异。已有研究发现海洋沉积物中有机质与黏土矿物关系密切[46-47],但其对有机质保存的理解仍有争议,部分学者认为矿物对有机质的吸附作用微乎其微[48],另一部分学者提出有机质与细粒物质的沉积类似,受水动力分异作用控制[49]。笔者认为,对于陆源有机质而言,黏土矿物对有机质的吸附作用不可忽视且受一定的水动力分异作用控制,已有研究证实在土壤及烃源岩中大量有机质都与黏土矿物结合存在[50-52],这也证实了黏土矿物对有机质吸附作用的重要性;而沉积物存在以分散颗粒状态赋存的有机质[53-54],也就是说陆源有机质在搬运过程中会受到一定的水动力分异作用。
矿物 比表面积/(m2·g-1) 内表面积 外表面积 总表面积 主要黏土矿物 蒙皂石 750 50.00 800.00 蛭石 750 1.00 750.00 绿泥石 0 15.00 15.00 高岭石 0 15.00 15.00 伊利石 0 30.00 30.00 主要碎屑矿物 长石 — 1.60 3.90 石英 — 0.90 6.60 方解石 — 7.45 7.45 Table 1. Specific surface area of different minerals (after Zhu et al.[45])
有机质组成决定了其生物可利用性,有机质由蛋白质、碳水化合物、类脂类、木质素和丹宁组成[27],在降解过程中蛋白质和碳水化合物将优先被异养生物利用[55],溶解有机质被异养生物利用合成结构复杂的有机质或以生物遗体的形式进行沉积,此外,海水中存在大量黏性颗粒物质可使溶解有机质聚合形成絮凝体进行沉积[27]。同时,溶解有机质与颗粒有机质不断相互转化,只有当有机质聚集形成大颗粒足以克服水体浮力而沉降保存时,才具有石油地质意义。
陆源有机质随物源碎屑搬运入海进而沉积保存,一定程度上受物源的影响,包括物源供给量及有机碳含量,物源供给量较大时,河口处有较大的沉积速率,陆源有机质得以快速埋藏得以保存。除此之外,物源区岩性、植被、矿物自身性质等因素均可影响以上因素从而对陆源有机质分布间接控制。
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